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===Roman legacy in Saxon and early mediæval Colchester===
===Roman legacy in Saxon and early mediæval Colchester===
[[File:Trinity Church Colchester Door.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Saxon doorway of Holy Trinity Church, reusing Roman tiles]]
[[File:Trinity Church Colchester Door.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Saxon doorway of Holy Trinity Church, reusing Roman tiles]]
Later dwellings at Culver Street and artifacts from the 7th and 8th centuries are seen as evidence that the shell of the Roman town was still in use into the age of the [[Kingdom of the East Saxons.<ref name=crum97/><ref name=crum92/> The ''Historia Brittonum'' traditionally ascribed to Nennius includes a list of the 28 cities of Britain, including a '''Cair Colun'''<ref>Nennius: Historia Brittonum, VI. Composed after AD&nbsp;830</ref> that has been thought to indicate Colchester.<ref name=nashford>Ford, David Nash. "[http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html The 28 Cities of Britain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120312/http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html |date=15 April 2016 }}" at Britannia. 2000.</ref><ref name=shusher>Newman, John Henry &&nbsp;al. [http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459 ''Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre'', Ch.&nbsp;X: "Britain in 429, A.&nbsp;D.",<!--sic--> p.&nbsp;92.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321234154/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459# |date=21 March 2016 }} James Toovey (London), 1844.</ref> Archaeology aside, Colchester first explicitly re-enters the ''written'' historical record again in the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] for 917, the year it was retaken from the Danes by a Saxon army led by King Edward the Elder, who "restored" the borough to English rule.<ref name=crum97/> The walls of the city have been retained,<ref name=crum81/> and many of the Mediæval and Saxon buildings in Colchester, including the [[Colchester Castle|Castle]], [[St Botolph's Priory]], [[St John's Abbey, Colchester|St John's Abbey]], Greyfriars, Holy Trinity Church and many of the Norman "stone houses" were built from the vast amounts of Roman debris left over in the town.<ref name=crum97>Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester - Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ({{ISBN|1 897719 04 3}})</ref><ref>Ashdown-Hill, John (2009) Mediæval Colchester's Lost Landmarks. Published by The Breedon Books Publishing Company Limited. ({{ISBN|978-1-85983-686-6}})</ref> Over 25,000 cubic metres of reused Roman tile and brick was used for the Castle alone.<ref name=crum97/> The quarrying of Roman rubble for building material reached a peak in the 12th and 13th Centuries.<ref name=crum81/>
Later dwellings at Culver Street and artifacts from the 7th and 8th centuries are seen as evidence that the shell of the Roman town was still in use into the age of the Kingdom of the East Saxons.<ref name=crum97/><ref name=crum92/> The ''Historia Brittonum'' traditionally ascribed to Nennius includes a list of the 28 cities of Britain, including a '''Cair Colun'''<ref>Nennius: Historia Brittonum, VI. Composed after AD&nbsp;830</ref> that has been thought to indicate Colchester.<ref name=nashford>Ford, David Nash. "[http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html The 28 Cities of Britain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120312/http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html |date=15 April 2016 }}" at Britannia. 2000.</ref><ref name=shusher>Newman, John Henry &&nbsp;al. [http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459 ''Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre'', Ch.&nbsp;X: "Britain in 429, A.&nbsp;D.",<!--sic--> p.&nbsp;92.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321234154/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459# |date=21 March 2016 }} James Toovey (London), 1844.</ref> Archaeology aside, Colchester first explicitly re-enters the ''written'' historical record again in the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] for 917, the year it was retaken from the Danes by a Saxon army led by King Edward the Elder, who "restored" the borough to English rule.<ref name=crum97/> The walls of the city have been retained,<ref name=crum81/> and many of the Mediæval and Saxon buildings in Colchester, including the [[Colchester Castle|Castle]], [[St Botolph's Priory]], [[St John's Abbey, Colchester|St John's Abbey]], Greyfriars, Holy Trinity Church and many of the Norman "stone houses" were built from the vast amounts of Roman debris left over in the town.<ref name=crum97>Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester - Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ({{ISBN|1 897719 04 3}})</ref><ref>Ashdown-Hill, John (2009) Mediæval Colchester's Lost Landmarks. Published by The Breedon Books Publishing Company Limited. ({{ISBN|978-1-85983-686-6}})</ref> Over 25,000 cubic metres of reused Roman tile and brick was used for the Castle alone.<ref name=crum97/> The quarrying of Roman rubble for building material reached a peak in the 12th and 13th Centuries.<ref name=crum81/>


Several structures from the Saxon period and Middle Ages incorporated Roman structural remains within their walls and outlines.<ref name=crum81/> The Temple of Claudius was a standing ruin until the Normans cleared the superstructure to incorporate the podium into [[Colchester Castle]] in the 11th Century.<ref name=crum97/><ref name=crum81/> In 2014 the discovery of marble pillars belonging to the Monumental Facade of the Temple precinct was made behind the High Street, with evidence suggesting that they were still standing until the Castle-builders knocked them over to make way for the Castle Bailey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13902 |title=The Trust's investigation of Roman arcade in local press |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date=25 July 2014|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref> The Normans referred to the Temple as King Coel's Palace and to the barbican of Balkerne Gate as Colkyng's Castle, reflecting a myth that continued into the mediæval period, and was recorded in the ''Colchester Chronicle'' (written in the 13th or early 14th century at St John's Abbey), that the Roman town was founded by a warlord called Coel. According to the Mediæval legend,<ref name=crum97/> which garbles folk-tales and pseudo-historical events together, he was supposedly the father of St Helena]], who was married off to Constantius in a bid to get the latter to lift his two-year siege of the town. Their son, Constantine the Great was then supposedly born in the town. St Helena is today the patron saint of Colchester, and the town's coat of arms depict the True Cross and crowns of the Three Kings that she is supposed to have found in Jerusalem.<ref name=coop/> Other examples of Roman remains used in later buildings include several mediæval cellars on the High Street,<ref name=crum81/> St Nicholas's Church (demolished in the 1950s), which was built on a Roman building and originally incorporated the remains of standing Roman walls,<ref name=crum81/> and St Helen's Chapel, which was built into the corner of the Roman theatre in the town.<ref name=crum97/><ref name=crum81/> A study in the late 1970s by Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered that many of the Mediæval property boundaries within Colchester's town centre followed the lines of Roman street frontages and the walls of Roman buildings.<ref name=crum81/> This was especially prominent along the High Street, where the mediæval street "frontage of the High Street between St Runwald's Church and Maidenburgh Street has fossilized the imprint of the Roman town underneath...".<ref name=crum81/> St Runwald's Church (demolished in the 19th century) formerly stood in the centre of the High Street market just east of the current Town Hall, and was built into the corner of a junction between two Roman streets.<ref name=crum81/> The study concluded that Roman building ruins and old street remains were in some cases used as a template for later property divisions.<ref name=crum81/>
Several structures from the Saxon period and Middle Ages incorporated Roman structural remains within their walls and outlines.<ref name=crum81/> The Temple of Claudius was a standing ruin until the Normans cleared the superstructure to incorporate the podium into [[Colchester Castle]] in the 11th Century.<ref name=crum97/><ref name=crum81/> In 2014 the discovery of marble pillars belonging to the Monumental Facade of the Temple precinct was made behind the High Street, with evidence suggesting that they were still standing until the Castle-builders knocked them over to make way for the Castle Bailey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13902 |title=The Trust's investigation of Roman arcade in local press |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date=25 July 2014|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref> The Normans referred to the Temple as King Coel's Palace and to the barbican of Balkerne Gate as Colkyng's Castle, reflecting a myth that continued into the mediæval period, and was recorded in the ''Colchester Chronicle'' (written in the 13th or early 14th century at St John's Abbey), that the Roman town was founded by a warlord called Coel. According to the Mediæval legend,<ref name=crum97/> which garbles folk-tales and pseudo-historical events together, he was supposedly the father of St Helena, who was married off to Constantius in a bid to get the latter to lift his two-year siege of the town. Their son, Constantine the Great was then supposedly born in the town. St Helena is today the patron saint of Colchester, and the town's coat of arms depict the True Cross and crowns of the Three Kings that she is supposed to have found in Jerusalem.<ref name=coop/> Other examples of Roman remains used in later buildings include several mediæval cellars on the High Street,<ref name=crum81/> St Nicholas's Church (demolished in the 1950s), which was built on a Roman building and originally incorporated the remains of standing Roman walls,<ref name=crum81/> and St Helen's Chapel, which was built into the corner of the Roman theatre in the town.<ref name=crum97/><ref name=crum81/> A study in the late 1970s by Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered that many of the Mediæval property boundaries within Colchester's town centre followed the lines of Roman street frontages and the walls of Roman buildings.<ref name=crum81/> This was especially prominent along the High Street, where the mediæval street "frontage of the High Street between St Runwald's Church and Maidenburgh Street has fossilized the imprint of the Roman town underneath...".<ref name=crum81/> St Runwald's Church (demolished in the 19th century) formerly stood in the centre of the High Street market just east of the current Town Hall, and was built into the corner of a junction between two Roman streets.<ref name=crum81/> The study concluded that Roman building ruins and old street remains were in some cases used as a template for later property divisions.<ref name=crum81/>


The name of the town and the River Colne are also a legacy of the Romans. "Colchester" (first appearing in written form in the 10th Century as ''Colencaester'' and ''Colneceastre'') is a Saxon name derived from the Latin words ''Colonia'' and ''Castra'',<ref name=crum97/> with the River Colne also taking its name from ''Colonia''.<ref name=crum97/>
The name of the town and the River Colne are also a legacy of the Romans. "Colchester" (first appearing in written form in the 10th Century as ''Colencaester'' and ''Colneceastre'') is a Saxon name derived from the Latin words ''Colonia'' and ''Castra'',<ref name=crum97/> with the River Colne also taking its name from ''Colonia''.<ref name=crum97/>

Revision as of 21:20, 30 November 2024

Colchester's Roman town walls

Camulodunum was a major city of Roman Britain, which is now Colchester in Essex. It became the first capital of the province. The idea (from a slogan devised in the 1960s) that Colchester is the "oldest recorded town in Britain" has become popular with residents and is still used on road signs.[1]

Originally this was the site of the native British oppidum of Camulodunon (meaning "stronghold of Camulos"), capital of the Trinovantes and later the Catuvellauni tribes. It was first mentioned by name on coinage minted by the chieftain Tasciovanus at some time between 20 and 10 BC.[2]

The Roman town began life as a Roman legionary base constructed in the AD 40s on the site of the Britons' fortress following its conquest by the Emperor Claudius.[2] After the early town was destroyed during Boudica's rebellion in AD 60/61, it was rebuilt, reaching its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.[2] During this time it was known by its official name Colonia Claudia Victricensis,[3] often shortened to Colonia Victricensis, and as Camulodunum, a Latinised version of its original British language name.[4] The town was home to a large classical temple, two theatres (including Britain's largest), several Romano-British temples, Britain's only known chariot circus, Britain's first town walls, several large cemeteries and over 50 known mosaics and tessellated pavements.[5][6][2][7] It may have reached a population of 30,000 at its height.[8]

It was not until the late 18th century that historians realised that Colchester's physical Ancient British and Roman remains were the city mentioned in ancient literature as "Camulodunum".

Iron Age Camulodunon

The earliest Iron Age defensive site at Colchester is the Pitchbury Ramparts earthwork north of the town between West Bergholt and Great Horkesley.[2] The main earthwork defences of the Celtic oppidum of Camulodunon were built later, beginning in the 1st century BC but most date from the 1st century AD.[2] They are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain.[2][9] The defences consist of lines of ditches and ramparts, possibly palisaded with gateways, that mostly run parallel to each other in a north–south direction. The Iron Age settlement was protected by rivers on three sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River valley forming the southern boundary; the earthworks were mostly designed to close off the western gap between these two river valleys.[2][10] Other earthworks close off eastern parts of the settlement. These earthworks gave the oppidum its Celtic name – Camulodunon meant "the stronghold of Camulus", the British god of war.[2] Together they enclose an area of 250 acres, much larger than the area enclosed by the Iron Age defences at Wheathampstead (86½ acres).[11]

The main sites within the bounds of these defences are the Gosbecks farmstead, the Sheepen industrial area and the Lexden burials. The Gosbecks site consists of a large, high-status farmstead,[4] believed to be the home of the tribal chieftains of Camulodunon.[2] Part of the Gosbecks complex is a large, square enclosure surrounded by a deep, wide ditch. This has been interpreted as part of a possible religious site, as during the Roman period a large temple was built in the middle of this enclosure.[2] The Sheepen site, located around what is now St Helena School on the banks of the River Colne, was a large industrial and port zone, where extensive iron and leather working activity was carried out,[2][10][12] as well as an important coin mint.[2] Two coins minted at Sheepen, one found in Colchester in 1980 and another found at Canterbury in 1978, depict boats, and are the only known depictions of sailing vessels from Iron Age Britain.[10] Amphorae containing imported goods from the continent have been found at Sheepen,[13] as have pieces of imported Samian pottery.[14]

Coin of the Trinovantes minted at Camulodunon

Just inside the earthworks, at Lexden, are located the burial mounds of the rulers of Camulodunon, which contain large amounts of grave goods including imported Roman material from Europe;[2] the largest of these mounds is the Lexden tumulus.[15][16]

Bronze coin of Cunobelin, with 'CAMV' for 'Camulodunon'

Addedomarus, a king of the Trinovantes tribe (originally centred at Braughing), is the first identifiable ruler of Camulodunon, known from his inscribed coins dating to around 25–10 BC. For a brief period around 10 BC Tasciovanus, a king of the Catuvellauni already issuing coins from Verlamion, also issued coins from Camulodunon, suggesting that the Trinovantes' capital had been conquered by the Catuvellauni, but he was soon forced to withdraw, perhaps as a result of Roman pressure – his later coins are no longer marked with the Latin REX ("king"), but with the British word RICON – and Addedomarus was restored. His son Dubnovellaunus succeeded him, but was soon supplanted by Tasciovanus' son Cunobelinus. Cunobelinus then succeeded his father at Verlamion, beginning the dominance of the Catuvellauni over the south-east.[17][18] Cunobelinus was friendly with Rome, marking his coins with the word REX and classical motifs rather than the traditional Gallo-Belgic designs. Archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods, probably through the Sheepen site port of Camulodunon, during his reign.[19] He was probably one of the British kings that Strabo says sent embassies to Augustus. Strabo reports Rome's lucrative trade with Britain; the island's exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs.[20] Iron ingots, slave chains and storage vessels discovered at the Sheepen site appear to confirm this trade with the Empire.[2]

Pre-Boudican Roman town

Claudian invasion

The Catuvellauni king Cunobelinus, ruling from his capital at Camulodunon, had subjugated a large area of southern and eastern Britain,[5][6] and was called by the Roman historian Suetonius "King of the Britons".[2] Under his rule Camulodunon had replaced Verlamion as the most important settlement in pre-Roman Britain.[6] Around AD 40 he had fallen out with his son Adminius (acting as proxy ruler of the Cantiaci tribe in his father's name), who had fled to Rome for support.[2] There he was received by the Emperor Gaius (Caligula).[21] After Cunobelinus' death (c. AD 40) his sons took power with the eldest, Togodumnus, ruling the Catuvellauni homeland around Verlamion, and Caratacus ruling from Camulodunon.[2] Together these brothers began expanding their influence over other British tribes, including the Atrebates of the south coast. Verica, king of the Atrebates, which had branches on both sides of the English Channel and had been friends of Rome since Caesar's campaigns,[22] appealed to the Emperor Claudius for aid. At the time of this appeal in AD 43 the newly enthroned Emperor Claudius was in need of a military victory in order to secure his shaky position with the military, and saw this call for help as the perfect pretext.[23] Aulus Plautius led the four Roman legions across to Britain with Camulodunon being their main target,[5] defeating and killing Togodumnus near the Thames and then waiting for Claudius to cross the Channel. Claudius arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants,[24] leading the attack on Camulodunon. Caratacus fled the storming of the town, taking refuge with the Ordovices and Silures tribes in the west and becoming a Welsh folk hero for his resistance to Rome.[2] The Roman historian Suetonius and Claudius' triumphal arch state that after this battle the British kings who had been under Cunobelinus' sons' control surrendered without further bloodshed, Claudius accepting their submission in Camulodunon.[25]

Roman fortress and early town

As the stronghold of a major tribe in the south-east, Camulodunon held strategic importance.[3] A Roman legionary fortress or castrum, the first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain,[2] was established within the confines of the town, known to the Romans as Camulodunum. A smaller fort was built against the Iron Age earthworks close to the Gosbecks high-status farmstead, and was home to the Ala Primae Thracum ("First Wing of Thracians", a cavalry regiment) and the Cohors Primae Vangionum ("First Cohort of Vangiones", a mixed cavalry-infantry unit from Gaul).[26]

Figurines from a child's burial, pre-60/1

The legionary fortress was larger than a standard castrum, and included a large annex on its north-east side.[2] It was protected by a large palisaded ditch and wall along with new earthwork ditch and rampart defences, built to supplement the existing native defences.[6][27][28] One of these was around the Sheepen site, which became the main Roman port for the fortress and later for the town, with another military river port at Fingringhoe.[2] Archaeological excavations in 2008-2009 revealed that the Roman Sheepen site was more extensive than previously thought, and had a network of gravelled roads and timber-buildings, some of which contained timber-lined basements.[11] A wooden paddle for a coracle was found preserved at the site.[11] The fortress had two main metalled roads, a north–south via principalis and an east–west via praetoria, as well as a via sagularis around the inside of the defensive walls.[28] Along the roads leading out of the fortress settlements known as vici developed, home to native Britons who served the Roman garrison.[2] The interior of the fortress consisted of long barrack blocks able to hold groups of eighty soldiers, known as a Century, with a large room for a Centurian at one end of each block.[28] Larger buildings for military Tribunes have been excavated in the centre of the fort[28] The walls of the military buildings were built on mortared plinths called opus caementicium, with wooden and daub walls faced with keyed plaster.[28] Roman military equipment and weapons have been found from the fortress, including swords, armour and harness fittings.[6]

Plan of the Temple of Claudius

After the legion was withdrawn in c. AD 49, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing.[2][4] Its official name became Colonia Victricensis, with discharged Roman soldiers making up the population; a bronze military diplomata (document formalising a soldier's retirement, citizen rights and land rights) for a legionary soldier called Saturninus has been found at the Sheepen site.[2] As a colonia (the only one in Britain at the time) its citizens held equal rights to Romans, and it was the principal city of Roman Britain.[2] Tacitus wrote that the town was "a strong colonia of ex-soldiers established on conquered territory, to provide a protection against rebels and a centre for instructing the provincials in the procedures of the law".[6] The Temple of Claudius, the largest classical style temple in Britain, was built there in the 50s and was dedicated to Emperor Claudius on his death in 54.[3][4] The podium, or foundation of the temple, was incorporated into the Norman castle, and represents "the earliest substantial stone building of Roman date visible in the country".[6] A monumental arch was built from tufa and Purbeck Marble at the western gate out of the town.[28]

Tombs lined the roads out of the town, with several belonging to military veterans giving insights into the military units stationed in Britain during the post-Conquest period, such as:

  • The famous tomb of the Thracian cavalryman Longinus Sdapeze, depicting a Thracian horseman on horseback with full armour, in triumph over a cowering Briton. It reads:

LONGINVS.SDAPEZE
MATYCI.F.DVPLICARIVS.ALA.PRIMA.TRACVM.PAGO
SARDICA.ANNO.XL.AEROR.XV
HEREDES.EXS.TESTAM.F.C.
H S E

('Longinus Sdapeze, son of Matycus, Duplicarius of Ala Primae Thracum, from the country district of Sardica, who lived for forty years, with fifteen years paid service. His heirs set this up as stipulated in his will. He lies here.')[26]
  • The tomb of the Centurion Marcus Favonius Facilis from Rome, depicting him in full military dress, is one of the finest examples,[6][2] and reads:

M.FAVONI.M.F.POL.FACI
LIS.C.LEG.XX.VERECVND
VS.ET.NOVCIVS.LIB.POSVERVNT H S E

('For Marcus Favonius Facilis, son of Marcus, of the Pollentian voting tribe, centurion of the Twentieth Legion, Verecundus and Noucius his freedmen have placed [this memorial]. He lies here.)[12]
  • The tomb of an Auxiliary from Gaul:

D M AR... RE... VAL... COH I VA... QVI M... EX AERE COLLATO

('To the spirits of the departed and to Ar[...] Re[...] Val[...] of the First Cohort of Vangiones, who [...] former collector of taxes.)[26]
  • The tomb of another experienced Centurion from Anatolia:

LEG I (or II) ADIVTRICIS... ...AE BIS C ... ... BIS C LEG III AVG ... C LEG XX VAL VICTORIVNDVS NICAEA IN BITHYNIA MILITAVIT ANN ... VIXIT ANN ... ...

('[...] of Legio Primae Adiutrix [...] twice centurion [...] twice centurion of Legio Tertiae Augusta [...] centurion of Legio Vicesimae Valeria, Victoriundus, from Nicaea in Bithynia, with [...] years military service who lived for [...] years [...])[12]

By 60-61 the population may have been as high as 30,000.[29]

The city was the capital of the Roman province of Britannia, and its temple (the only classical-style temple in Britain) was the centre of the Imperial Cult in the province.[2] The Roman philosopher Seneca mentioned the temple when he mocked the province for its piety towards the Deified Claudius.[30] The city was also initially home to the provincial Procurator of Britain. Aside from the Roman population, the city and surrounding territorium was also home to a large native population. Examples of cooperation between the two groups include the Romano-British Stanway Burials mounds[2][31] and the warrior graves of native elites from the 50s.[32][33] These graves represent members of the native aristocracy who have been Romanised.[34]

Iceni revolt

Tensions in Britain arose in 60/61 when the Roman authorities used the death of Prasutagus as a pretext for seizing the Iceni client state from his widow Boudica. Boudica raised her people and they were joined by the Trinovantes around Colonia Victricensis, who held several grudges against the Roman population of the town. These included the seizure of land for the veterans settled in the colony, the use of labour to build the Temple of Claudius, and the sudden recall of loans given to the local elites by leading Romans (including Seneca and the Emperor), which had been needed to allow the locals to qualify for a position on the city council.[2][35] The Procurator Catus Decianus was especially despised.[5]

Tacitus recorded that certain ominous portents occurred in the town prior to the rebellion:

"[...]the statue of Victory fell down, its back turned as though in retreat from the enemy. Women roused into frenzy chanted of approaching destruction, and declared that the cries of the barbarians had been heard in the council-chamber, that the theatre had re-echoed with shrieks, that a reflection of the colonia, overthrown, had been seen in the Thames estuary. The sea appeared blood-red, and spectres of human corpses were left behind as the tide went out."[6]

As the symbol of Roman rule in Britain the city was the first target of the rebels, with its Temple seen in British eyes as the arx aeternae dominationis ("stronghold of everlasting domination") according to Tacitus.[6] He wrote that it was undefended by fortifications when it was attacked[35] with a garrison of only 200 members of the procurator's guard.[3] He wrote of a last stand at the Temple of Claudius:

"In the attack everything was broken down and burnt. The temple where the soldiers had congregated was besieged for two days and then sacked.".[6]

The rebels destroyed the city and slaughtered its population. Archaeologists have found layers of ash in the site of the city, suggesting that Boudica ordered her rebel army to burn the city to the ground.[36] A relief army consisting of the Legio IX Hispana led by Quintus Petillius Cerialis attempted to rescue the besieged citizens, but was destroyed outside of the town. After the Romans under governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus finally defeated the uprising, the Procurator of the province moved his seat to the newly established commercial settlement at Londinium (London).[37]

Stylized statue of Boudica in Colchester

The destruction of the early town by the rebels has left a thick layer of ash, destroyed buildings and smashed pottery and glasswork across the town centre and at the Sheepen river port site outside the north-west corner of the town. The destruction layer, also found at Verulamium (St Albans) and Londinium (London), is famous for the charred preservation of artefacts and furniture,[6] including a samian store, a glass store, beds and mattresses, wall plaster, tessellated floors, a few human bones with wounds and even dates and plums.[27][28][38] During excavations in 2014 at Williams and Griffin on the High Street a collection of gold and silver jewellery was discovered buried in the floor of a Roman building destroyed during the revolt.[39] Known as the "Fenwick Treasure", it appears to have been buried just prior to the building's destruction by a victim of the Boudican attack.[39] The layer is important to historians as it is one of the first archaeological contexts in Britain that can be given a definitive date, as well as to archaeologists as it provides a snapshot of artifacts from 60, allowing typologies of finds to be tied into a historical timeline, for example in Samian production. The rubble from the destruction was landscaped during the rebuilding of the town that took place in the years after the revolt.[40]

Colonia Victricensis in the second and third centuries

The Roman Colonia Victricensis in its wider landscape

Following the destruction of the city and Suetonius Paulinus' crushing of the revolt the town was rebuilt on a larger scale and flourished,[12] growing larger in size than its pre-Boudican levels (to 108 acres/45 ha)[6] despite its loss of status to Londinium, reaching its peak in the Second and 3rd centuries.[2] The town's official name was Colonia Claudia Victricensis (City of Claudius' Victory), but it was known colloquially by contemporaries (such as on the monument of Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus in Rome - see below) as Camulodunum or simply Colonia.[2]

The city became a large industrial centre, and was the largest, and for a short time the only, place in the province of Britannia where samian ware was produced, along with glasswork and metalwork, and a coin mint.[2] Roman brick making and wine growing also took place in the area. Colonia Victricensis contained many large townhouses, with dozens of mosaics and tessellated pavements found, along with hypocausts and sophisticated waterpipes and drains.[2][41]

The city is mentioned by name several times by contemporaries, including in Pliny's Natural History, Ptolemy's Geography, Tacitus' Annales, The Antonine Itinerary and the Ravenna Cosmography.[12] The 2nd century tomb inscription for Gn. Munatius Bassus in Rome, which describes the name of the town and its Roman citizenship, reads:

GN.MVNATIVS.MF.PAL
AVRELIVS.BASSVS
PROCAVG
PRAEF.FABR.PRAEF.COH.III
SAGITTARIORVM.PRAEF.COH.ITERVM.II
ASTVRVM.CENSITOR.CIVIVM
ROMANORVM.COLONIAE.VICTRI
CENSIS.QVAE.EST.IN.BRITTANNIA
CAMALODVNI.CVRATOR
VIAE.NOMENTANAE.PATRONVS.EIVSDEM
MVNICIPI.FLAMEN.PERPETVS
DVVM.VIR.ALI.POTESTATE
AEDILIS.DICTATOR.IIII.

('Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus, son of Marcus of the Palatine Tribe, Procurator of the Emperor, Prefect of the Armourers, Prefect of the Third Cohort of Archers, Prefect again of the Second Cohort of Asturians, Census Officer of the Roman Citizens of Colonia Victricensis, which is in Britain at Camulodunum, Overseer of the Nomentum Road, Patron again of the same municipality, Priest for life, Aedile with magisterial power, Dictator four times.')[2]

Status

The city was one of the few Roman settlements in Britain designated as a Colonia rather than a Municipia, meaning that in legal terms it was an extension of the city of Rome, not a provincial town. Its inhabitants therefore had Roman citizenship. Of the two provincial administrators the senatorial military governor was always located in areas of conflict,[42] whilst the civilian Procurator's office had moved from Camulodunum to the new port of Londinium sometime around the Boudican Revolt.[2] However the city did retain the Imperial cult centre and priesthood at the Temple of Claudius. The city was at the centre of a large territorium containing many villa sites, including an important cluster around the Colne estuary.[5]

Walls

The remains of the Balkerne Gate, which straddled the main road from London

Following the rebuilding of the town after 60/1, new walls and a large defensive ditch were built around the city (the first town walls in Britain, predating other such walls in the province by at least 150 years[6]). They were completed by 80, twenty years after the revolt.[6][4] They were built with two external faces of alternating layers of tile and septaria mudstone containing a core of septaria boulders, with a 10 ft wide and 4 ft deep foundation trench, the whole structure taking up 45,000 cubic metres of stone, tile and mortar.[6]<refname=str98/>[28] They were 2,800m long and 2.4m thick, and survive up to a height of over 6m in the 21st Century.[2] Later, in around 175-200 a large earth bank was built up against the inner face of the walls.[6] The walls had between 12 and 24 towers and six large gates.[2] The Balkerne Gate, in the centre of the Western section of the walls, was the main gate out of the town. It has a large fortified barbican that still stands as Britain's largest Roman gateway, which incorporated the earlier monumental arch built before the Iceni rebellion and was flanked by two possible temples,[28] one of which may have contained the Venus statuette found during the 1973-76 excavations.[43] Skulls showing signs of decapitation were found in the town ditch in front of the gate, interpreted as executions on public display.[28] The North wall contained two gates, the modern North Gate and Duncan's Gate. The East wall had the modern East Gate, and the Southern wall had the modern South Gate and Head Gate.[2] Drains were constructed in the wall to allow sewerage out of the city.[44]

Streets

Roman streets and excavated remains

The Cardo Maximus, the main north–south street, ran between North Gate and Head Gate, whilst the Decumanus Maximus, the main east–west street, ran between Balkerne Gate and East Gate, and have their origins in the legionary fortresses two main axial streets.[2] They were well paved, had drainage channels and were fronted with houses and shops.[45] Many included footways, a feature that is rare in other Roman British towns.[28] The rest of the city was gridded into around forty blocks known as insulae, with paved streets and colonnaded paths between.[27][28] As well as a system of local roads leading to settlements around the colony, Camulodunum was linked to the rest of the Province by several major roads, including Stane Street, Camlet Way, Pye Road and the Via Devana.

Public buildings

Within the town walls was located the Temple of Claudius in its large temple precinct with a monumental columned arcade.[46][47] Parts of the temple precinct wall are still visible to the north-west of the present castle, jutting out from beneath the Norman bailey rampart.[6] The front of the precinct wall consisted of a large columned arcade screen extending the full width of the frontage.[2] At the centre of this arcade stood the entranceway to the temple precinct, which took the form of a tufa-faced monumental arch that at 26 feet wide was about six feet wider than the one at the eastern entrance to the town, which had been incorporated into Balkerne Gate.[2]

To the west of the temple on the modern Maidenburgh Street was a 3,000 seat capacity Roman theatre, which now has the Norman chapel of St Helena built into the corner of it,[6] currently open to public viewing.[6][27] Opposite the Temple, on the south side of the Decumanus Maximus, the remains of a possible Basilica have been identified.[2] At least seven Romano-Celtic temples have been identified at Camulodunum,[4] with the largest located at the Gosbecks area to the south of the town, built within the site of a former Iron-Age enclosure.[2]

A large portico with an eastern entrance ran all the way around the outside of the site, with a solid outer wall, a row of columns down the centre of the portico and a second row of columns around the inner side.[2] In all there were about 260 columns placed 2 m apart, and reaching a height of at least 5 m.[2] The portico ran around the outside of a deep, Iron-Age enclosure ditch, which separated the portico from the central space in the middle of the site. This central space contained a large Romano-Celtic temple, which stood off-centre, leading to suggestions that something else stood at the heart of the religious complex.[2]

Next to the Gosbecks temple stood a second 5,000 seat theatre, Britain's largest at 90 yards in diameter.[6]<refname=str98/> A group of four Romano-Celtic temples stood at the Sheepen industrial site, one of which was dedicated to Jupiter.[48] Temple I at the Sheepen site was found to be enclosed by a large, buttressed precinct wall during excavations in 1935 and 2014.[49]

In 2005, the only known Roman circus in Britain was discovered on the southern outskirts of the city.[50] It is about 450 metres long, with eight starting-gates, and it was built in the early 2nd ADntury.[51] It could accommodate at least 8,000 spectators and maybe up to as many as double that.[51] The structure's gates are being opened to the public.[52]

Several temples and religious monuments in and around the city have evidence for the deity honoured by them:

  • A statue of Venus was found in the vicinity of the temple outside of the Balkerne Gate.[2]
  • A statue of Mercury was found at the site of the Gosbecks temple.[4]
  • The Temple at the Colchester Royal Grammar School has several plaques dedicated to Silvanus,[2] including:
DEO SILVANO CALLIRIO D CINTVSMVS AERARIVS VSLM
('To the god Silvanus Callirius, Decimus Cintusmus, coppersmith, willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow.')[47]
DEO SILVANO HERMES VSLM
('To the god Silvanus, Hermes willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow.')[47]
  • The largest of the four temples at the Sheepen site has a plaque dedicated to Jupiter:
  • An altar to the SW of the town dedicated to the Suleviae:
  • A Bronze plaque dedicated sometime between 222 and 235 AD by a Syrian to Mars and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Severus, himself a Syrian:
  • A monument, built by a local artisan Maronius, was dedicated to the "Numinibus Augusti" (Spirits of the Emperor) and Mercury:

Marble from many of these public structures has been found, including Purbeck Marble and giallo antico (a rare yellow marble from Tunisia),[6] as well as statutes, inscriptions and plaques.[2]

Late Roman town

The late 3rd century and 4th centuries saw a series of crises in the Empire, including the breakaway Gallic Empire (of which Britain was a part), and raids by Saxon pirates, both of which led to the creation of the Saxon Shore forts along the east coast of Britain.[4] The fort at Othona overlooking the confluence of the Blackwater and Colne estuaries, and two more at the mouth of the river into the city were built to protect the town.[2]<refname=str98/> Balkerne Gate and Duncan's Gate were both blocked up in this period, with the later showing signs of being attacked.[2] The extramural suburbs outside of Balkerne Gate had gone by 300[4] and were replaced by cultivation beds.[53] The re-cutting of the town ditch in front of the newly blocked Balkerne Gate in 275-300 involved destroying the water pipes which entered the city through the gate. However a small portal in the gateway may have been opened up later.[53] The town ditch began to silt up from c. 400 onwards.[53] The troubles of the late 3rd century saw the burial of several coin hoards around the town, including a hoard of 1,247 coins found in a grey-ware pot at Hyderabad Barracks.

As with many towns in the Empire, the city shrunk in size in the 4th century but continued to function as an important town.[54] Although houses tended to shrink in size, with 75% of the large townhouses being replaced by smaller buildings by c. 350,[54] in the period 275 to 325 a weak "building boom" (the "Constantinian renaissance") occurred in the town, with new houses being built and old ones reshaped.[54] Many of the town's mosaics date from this period, including the famous Lion Walk mosaic.[6] Late Roman robber trenches have been found at some sites for removing and salvaging tessellated floors and tiles for reuse in later houses.[27][28] The pottery industry in the town had declined significantly by 300,[54] but the 4th century did see an increase in the bone-working industry for making furniture and jewellery,[27] and evidence of blown glass making has also been found.[27] Large areas of the Southern part of the town were given over to agriculture.[27]

Despite the scaling down of private buildings an increase in the size and grandeur of public buildings occurs in the period 275-400.[54] The Temple of Claudius and its associated temenos buildings were reconstructed in the early-4th century, along with the possible forum-basilica building to the south of it.[55] The Temple appears to have had a large apsidal hall built across the front of the podium steps, with numismatic dating evidence taking the date of the building up to at least 395.[55] A large hall at the Culver Street site, dated 275-325 to c. 400, may have been a large centralised storage barn for taxes paid in kind with grain.[27][54]

Although the Gosbecks Theatre had been demolished by the 3rd century, the theatre at Maidenburgh Street may still have been in use throughout the 4th century.[56] The sunken chambers of the water reservoir system found in Castle Park appear to have become blocked up with debris and dumped rubbish in the 4th century and had gone out of use.[57][58] The Roman chariot circus was also demolished during the late 4th century.[59] Increases in the number of clipped coins from the 4th century have been interpreted as a breakdown in the Roman monetary economy,[2] with most new Bronze coins ceasing to be introduced in the town c. 395 and silver coins in 402 (however these coins may have remained in circulation long after being minted).[54] For example, the coin sequence at the Butt Road church goes up to around 425, 14 years after Roman rule ended in the province.[54]

Late Roman military equipment has been discovered in the town,[60] including an official cingulum militare belt buckle made in Pannonia (Roman province)|Pannonia for Roman frontier units.[60] Alongside Roman military equipment 4th and early 5th century Germanic weaponry has been found alongside Germanic domestic objects in the Late Roman town, which has been interpreted by archaeologist Philip Crummy as perhaps representing Saxon foederati mercenaries living and settling in the town during this period, several decades before the Saxon migrations of the mid to late 5th century.[60]

During this period the late Roman church at Butt Road[4] just outside the town walls was built with its associated cemetery containing over 650 graves (some containing fragments of Chinese silk), and may be one of the earliest churches in Britain.[2] A strong numismatic chronology has been obtained from the over 500 coins found at the site, and puts its date from 320 to c.425.[53] Several other possible churches or Christian buildings have been postulated, such as Building 127 at Culver Street and possible Roman remains beneath St Helena's Chapel, St Nicholas Church and Roman "vaults" beneath St Botolph's Priory which might be a late-Roman Martyrium, although over interpretations include a bath-house.[58] The Temple of Claudius, which underwent large-scale structural additions in the 4th century, may also have been repurposed as a Christian church, as a Chi Rho symbol carved on a piece of Roman pottery found in the vicinity of the temenos.[2] Further Roman Christian objects found in the town include a candlestick from Balkerne Lane inscribed with an Iota Chi symbol and a bronze spoon with AETERNVS VITA written on it.[61] Three British Bishops attended the Council of Arles (314), one from London, one from York and a third from a place whose first word is Colonia but whose second word is too corrupted to make out with any certainty, but has been interpreted as something like Camulodensium (although Lincoln and Gloucester are other possible candidates).[61]

Sub-Roman period

The formal collapse of Roman administration in the province occurred in the years 409-411. Activity in the 5th century continued in Camulodunum at a much reduced level,[54] with evidence of at the Butt Road site showing that it briefly carrying on into the early 5th century.

This is the period when Roman Colonia Victrix started to become Saxon Colneceaster.

Roman legacy in Saxon and early mediæval Colchester

Saxon doorway of Holy Trinity Church, reusing Roman tiles

Later dwellings at Culver Street and artifacts from the 7th and 8th centuries are seen as evidence that the shell of the Roman town was still in use into the age of the Kingdom of the East Saxons.[2][27] The Historia Brittonum traditionally ascribed to Nennius includes a list of the 28 cities of Britain, including a Cair Colun[62] that has been thought to indicate Colchester.[63][64] Archaeology aside, Colchester first explicitly re-enters the written historical record again in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 917, the year it was retaken from the Danes by a Saxon army led by King Edward the Elder, who "restored" the borough to English rule.[2] The walls of the city have been retained,[60] and many of the Mediæval and Saxon buildings in Colchester, including the Castle, St Botolph's Priory, St John's Abbey, Greyfriars, Holy Trinity Church and many of the Norman "stone houses" were built from the vast amounts of Roman debris left over in the town.[2][65] Over 25,000 cubic metres of reused Roman tile and brick was used for the Castle alone.[2] The quarrying of Roman rubble for building material reached a peak in the 12th and 13th Centuries.[60]

Several structures from the Saxon period and Middle Ages incorporated Roman structural remains within their walls and outlines.[60] The Temple of Claudius was a standing ruin until the Normans cleared the superstructure to incorporate the podium into Colchester Castle in the 11th Century.[2][60] In 2014 the discovery of marble pillars belonging to the Monumental Facade of the Temple precinct was made behind the High Street, with evidence suggesting that they were still standing until the Castle-builders knocked them over to make way for the Castle Bailey.[66] The Normans referred to the Temple as King Coel's Palace and to the barbican of Balkerne Gate as Colkyng's Castle, reflecting a myth that continued into the mediæval period, and was recorded in the Colchester Chronicle (written in the 13th or early 14th century at St John's Abbey), that the Roman town was founded by a warlord called Coel. According to the Mediæval legend,[2] which garbles folk-tales and pseudo-historical events together, he was supposedly the father of St Helena, who was married off to Constantius in a bid to get the latter to lift his two-year siege of the town. Their son, Constantine the Great was then supposedly born in the town. St Helena is today the patron saint of Colchester, and the town's coat of arms depict the True Cross and crowns of the Three Kings that she is supposed to have found in Jerusalem.[4] Other examples of Roman remains used in later buildings include several mediæval cellars on the High Street,[60] St Nicholas's Church (demolished in the 1950s), which was built on a Roman building and originally incorporated the remains of standing Roman walls,[60] and St Helen's Chapel, which was built into the corner of the Roman theatre in the town.[2][60] A study in the late 1970s by Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered that many of the Mediæval property boundaries within Colchester's town centre followed the lines of Roman street frontages and the walls of Roman buildings.[60] This was especially prominent along the High Street, where the mediæval street "frontage of the High Street between St Runwald's Church and Maidenburgh Street has fossilized the imprint of the Roman town underneath...".[60] St Runwald's Church (demolished in the 19th century) formerly stood in the centre of the High Street market just east of the current Town Hall, and was built into the corner of a junction between two Roman streets.[60] The study concluded that Roman building ruins and old street remains were in some cases used as a template for later property divisions.[60]

The name of the town and the River Colne are also a legacy of the Romans. "Colchester" (first appearing in written form in the 10th Century as Colencaester and Colneceastre) is a Saxon name derived from the Latin words Colonia and Castra,[2] with the River Colne also taking its name from Colonia.[2]

Location

Outside links

 ("Wikimedia Commons" has material
about Camulodunum)

References

  1. ↑ McWhirr, Alan (1988) Roman Crafts and Industries. Published by Shire Publications LTD. (ISBN 0 85263 594 X)
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 2.40 2.41 2.42 2.43 2.44 2.45 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.49 2.50 2.51 2.52 2.53 2.54 2.55 2.56 2.57 2.58 2.59 2.60 2.61 2.62 2.63 Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester - Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust (ISBN 1 897719 04 3)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Mike Ibeji. "Roman Colchester: Britain's First City". BBC Online. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/colchester_04.shtml. 
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 A History of the County of Essex - Volume 9 pp 2-18: Iron-Age and Roman Colchester (Victoria County History)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Todd, Malcolm. (1981) Roman Britain; 55 BC - AD 400. Published by Fontana Paperbacks (ISBN 0 00 633756 2)
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 Wilson, Roger J.A. (2002) A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain (Fourth Edition). Published by Constable. (ISBN 1-84119-318-6)
  7. ↑ Hull, M.R. (1958). Roman Colchester. The Society of Antiquaries of London
  8. ↑ McCloy, A.; Midgley, A. (2008). Discovering Roman Britain. New Holland. p. 60. ISBN 9781847731289. https://books.google.com/books?id=mswynZFMtqgC. Retrieved 25 October 2014. 
  9. ↑ "Britain's biggest Iron Age dyke system gets even bigger". March 2011. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=967. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Denney, Patrick (2004) Colchester. Published by Tempus Publishing (ISBN 978-0-7524-3214-4)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 The Colchester Archaeologist. Issue no. 22. (2009). (ISSN 0952-0988)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 @"Colonia Camulodunum (Colchester)". http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/camulodunum/. 
  13. ↑ Sealy, P.R. (1985) Amphoras from the 1970 excavations of Colchester Sheepen. Oxford, British Archaeological Report 142
  14. ↑ Begley, Vimala and Daniel de Puma, Richard (eds.) (1991) Rome and India. The Ancient Sea Trade. University of Wisconsin Press (ISBN 0-299-12640-4)
  15. ↑ National Monuments Record: No. 384037 – @
  16. ↑ "Seax Archaeology". http://unlockingessex.essexcc.gov.uk/uep/custom_pages/monument_detail.asp?content_page_id=89&monument_id=34083&content_parents=48. 
  17. ↑ John Creighton (2000), Coins and power in Late Iron Age Britain, Cambridge University Press
  18. ↑ Philip de Jersey (1996), "Celtic Coinage in Britain", Shire Archaeology
  19. ↑ Keith Branigan (1987), The Catuvellauni, Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd, pp. 10–11
  20. ↑ Strabo, Geography 4.5
  21. ↑ Suetonius (1989) The Twelve Caesars. Published by Penguin Classics. (ISBN 0-14-044072-0)
  22. ↑ Caesar (1982) The Conquest of Gaul. Published by Penguin Classics. (ISBN 0-14-044433-5)
  23. ↑ Scarre, Chris (1997) Chronicle of the Roman Emperors. The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. Published by Thames and Hudson. (ISBN 0-500-05077-5)
  24. ↑ Cassius Dio, Roman History 60.19-22
  25. ↑ Suetonius, Claudius 17; Arch of Claudius
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 "roman-britain". http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/stanway/.  retrieved 29 July 2014
  27. ↑ 27.00 27.01 27.02 27.03 27.04 27.05 27.06 27.07 27.08 27.09 Crummy, Philip (1992) Colchester Archaeological Report 6: Excavations at Culver Street, the Gilberd School, and other sites in Colchester 1971-85. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust (ISBN 0-9503727-9-X)
  28. ↑ 28.00 28.01 28.02 28.03 28.04 28.05 28.06 28.07 28.08 28.09 28.10 28.11 28.12 Crummy, Philip (1984) Colchester Archaeological Report 3: Excavations at Lion Walk, Balkerne Lane, and Middleborough, Colchester, Essex. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust (ISBN 0-9503727-4-9)
  29. ↑ Norwich, J.J. (2011). A History of England in 100 Places: From Stonehenge to the Gherkin. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 9781848546080. https://books.google.com/books?id=37XQ87lOcXMC. Retrieved 25 October 2014. 
  30. ↑ Petronius – The Satyricon/Seneca – The Apocolocyntosis (1986) Published by Penguin Classics. (ISBN 0-14-044489-0)
  31. ↑ "Camulodunum - Gosbecks Archaeological Park". http://www.camulos.com/gosbecks.htm. 
  32. ↑ "Warrior grave found in excavation". http://www.gazette-news.co.uk/news/10677948._/. 
  33. ↑ "2,000-Year-Old Warrior Grave & Spears Unearthed - Archaeology Magazine". http://www.archaeology.org/news/1309-130918-england-warrior-catuvellauni-spears. 
  34. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named str98
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Tacitus (1876)
  36. ↑ "Colchester: Death by sword in Boudicca's war?". 15 July 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13560. 
  37. ↑ Graham Webster, Boudica: the British Revolt against Rome AD 60, 1978, pp. 89-90
  38. ↑ "The Trust finds further ancient human remains at Williams & Griffin…". 23 July 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13385. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "The Fenwick Treasure at Williams & Griffin!". 3 September 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=14844. 
  40. ↑ "Colchester's Boudican revolt human remains in national press". 9 July 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13568. 
  41. ↑ "Part of Roman street uncovered at Williams & Griffin site". 16 July 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13656. 
  42. ↑ Tacitus (1986) The Agricola and the Germania. Published by Penguin Classics (ISBN 0-14-044241-3)
  43. ↑ Crummy, Nina (1983) Colchester Archaeological Reports 2: The Roman small finds from Colchester 1971-9. Published by Colchester Archaeology Trust. (ISBN 0-9503727-3-0)
  44. ↑ "Your Virtual Walk-the-Walls Guided Tour of Colchester". http://www.camulos.com/virtual/townwall2.htm. 
  45. ↑ "Part of Roman street uncovered at Williams & Griffin site". 16 July 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13656. 
  46. ↑ "Colchester: grand Roman arcade on a monumental scale | The Colchester Archaeologist". thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk. 21 July 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13840. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 @"www.roman-britain.co.uk". http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/colchester_temples/.  retrieved 20 July 2014
  48. ↑ "It's all in the pits at St Helena School". 29 October 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=15908. 
  49. ↑ "The Trust uncovers temple precinct wall at St Helena School". 5 November 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=16086. 
  50. ↑ "More of the Roman circus uncovered!". 4 November 2013. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=7882. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 "Circus Maximus games | The Colchester Archaeologist". The Colchester Archaeologist (thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk). 28 July 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13904. 
  52. ↑ "Welcome to the Roman circus! Circus centre and cafe to reopen tomorrow, June 5th". http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13470. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 Crummy, Philip (1987) The Coins as Dating Evidence. In Crummy, N. (ed.) Colchester Archaeological Report 4: The Coins from Excavations in Colchester 1971-9. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 54.5 54.6 54.7 54.8 Faulkner, Neil. (1994) Late Roman Colchester, In Oxford Journal of Archaeology 13(1)
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Drury, P.J, (1984) The Temple of Claudius Reconsidered. Britannia XV, 7-50
  56. ↑ Crummy, Philip (1982) The Roman Theatre at Colchester. "Britannia XIII", 299-302
  57. ↑ Hull, M.R. 1958 Roman Colchester. Oxford Society of Antiquities
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Crummy, Philip (1980). The Temples of Roman Colchester. In Rodwell, W (ed.) Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research in Roman Britain. (Oxford, British Archaeological Report 77(i))
  59. ↑ "Roman circus centre: Past, present and future". 7 November 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=16088. 
  60. ↑ 60.00 60.01 60.02 60.03 60.04 60.05 60.06 60.07 60.08 60.09 60.10 60.11 60.12 60.13 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named crum81
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Toynbee, JMC (1953)'Christianity in Roman Britain' in Journal of Brit. Arch. Ass. 16 (3rd Series)
  62. ↑ Nennius: Historia Brittonum, VI. Composed after AD 830
  63. ↑ Ford, David Nash. "The 28 Cities of Britain Template:Webarchive" at Britannia. 2000.
  64. ↑ Newman, John Henry & al. Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre, Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92. Template:Webarchive James Toovey (London), 1844.
  65. ↑ Ashdown-Hill, John (2009) Mediæval Colchester's Lost Landmarks. Published by The Breedon Books Publishing Company Limited. (ISBN 978-1-85983-686-6)
  66. ↑ "The Trust's investigation of Roman arcade in local press". 25 July 2014. http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13902. 
  • Tacitus (1876). The Annales. Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (translators). 


Major towns of Roman Britain

Capitals: Londinium (London) • Eboracum (York) • Camulodunum (Colchester)

Caesaromagus (Chelmsford) • Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester) • Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester) • Deva Victrix (Chester) • Durovernum Cantiacorum (Canterbury) • Durnovaria (Dorchester) • Glevum (Gloucester) • Isca Augusta (Caerleon) • Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter) • Isurium Brigantum (Aldborough) • Lactodurum (Towcester) • Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) • Luguualium (Carlisle) • Moridunum (Carmarthen) • Noviomagus Reginorum (Chichester) • Petuaria (Brough) • Ratae Corieltauvorum (Leicester) • Venta Belgarum (Winchester) • Venta Silurum (Caerwent) • Verulamium (St Albans) • Viroconium Cornoviorum (Wroxeter)

Lost:   Alchester (Wendlebury) • Bannaventa (Northamptonshire) • Cunetio (Wiltshire) • Venta Icenorum (Norfolk)

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